(Dis)comfortably numb in energy transitions: Gauging residential hard-to-reach energy users in the European Union

Hard-to-reach energy users – those who are difficult to reach, underserved, or hard to engage or motivate – are a vital concern for just energy transitions. In this context, we review the literature to systematise a theoretical framework, proposing thirteen profiles for vulnerable households (low-income, low education, rural, multi-family, elderly, young, single parents, migrants, unemployed, ill-health and disabilities, ethnic minorities and indigenous groups, homeless and informal settlements, travellers and nomadic communities), two for high-income households (high-income, sumptuous spenders), and two for tenants and landlords (tenants, landlords). We select indicators to gauge these audiences in the European Union. Relevant variations are found across Member States. Furthermore, a significant population share intersects at least two profiles, compounding the barriers to their engagement. The hard-to-reach concept can be useful to inform policymakers and practitioners.